Introductory
Censuses and self assessments are widely used tools to calculate bilingualism in an area, but these tools carry a bunch of limitations. For example, censuses may avoid division of bilingulism based on different regions, and self assessments may contain exaggerated responses from individuals. We previously learned that it was difficult to define bilingualism because it is affected by different factors, and different geographical regions will have different concentrations of bilingualism. The issues in defining bilingualism further complicate how we ought to measure it. Though the concept of language abilities and categorizing bilingualism based on such abilities makes for an academically acceptable measure.
The 4 Language Abilities
The language abilities are divided into two categories, the speaking and listening abilities of language are counted in oracy (a low level of competence) whereas the reading and writing abilities are included in literacy (a high level of linguistic competence). These language abilities are also classified based on their nature, such as speaking and writing, which are productive in nature but require a more in-depth understanding of the language, while reading and listening are receptive skills.
You will see many people around you who are able to understand your spoken interaction with them in Urdu but they will respond to you in Saraiki, and you might be able to pick up most of their response to you (if you are from an area where only Urdu is spoken). Both you and the Saraiki person will be passive bilinguals since both of you are able to put the listening ability of your language to good use.
Much like how there are many colours between black and white, these language abilities also have a slew of other contextual varieties to look through, which further complicates measuring bilingualism. Sure we can declare that Person Y is able to use use all four language skills in both Urdu and English, but we will still be ignoring the contexts in which he can use the two languages. For example, in Urdu, he can communicate in a wide range of contexts (situations) such as buying grocery items in a shop, getting his professional job done in his workspace, and requesting something to eat, whereas he is only able to read and write in English in the context of his academic background and he is not able to carry out other tasks just because he does not know the right vocabulary. We could call him bilingual, but since his (working) proficiency in English language is limited, this might not be ideal.
5th Language Skill
Thinking (reasoning and self-reflection) is another ability that makes us distinct from other living beings. But our internal thinking is also processed in a language we know well. Though many of us are able to think and self reflect in two languages. Some even go as far to term thinking as the 5th language skill since language is greatly involved in our thought process. We could add it to the umbrella term "speaking" but since we can't hear what someone is thinking, it's distinct enough to be separated into its own category.
Maximalism and Minimalism
Some say (Bloomfield) native like control of two languages is bilingualism, while others suggest having command in one language ability is enough to be called bilingual. Both of these extremes are called the maximalist and minimalist views of bilingualism and they may inflate the number of bilinguals who have native-like command in one language while only knowing two words in the other language. We could be excluding many people if we went with the maximalist route, whereas we would inflate the numbers from a minimalist point of view.
The Problem of Quantity Over Quality
As stated above, such extreme viewpoints will inflate and deflate the number of people who know two or more languages because their language proficiency may vary from person to person and language to language, thus resulting in many misinterpretations of the language statistics within the community. For example, India is a country with a vast linguistic diversity since there are 780 languages known by Indians. The problem will arise when the government focuses on only a handful of languages, ignoring the rest of them, and thus, putting the undocumented languages under danger of going extinct if the government pushes for certain languages. Similarly, people in Canada know both English and French, but their language proficiency will differ, and the official census may log limited or minimal proficiency in one language (say French) as bilingual, thus inflating the overall count and resulting in an inaccurate picture.
Balanced Bilingualism
If having a native-like understanding or a minimal understanding does not accurately represent the data of bilingualism, then where do we draw the line? Enter balanced bilingualism (also equallingualism and ambilingualism), a[n ideal] concept in which a person has equal and fluent competency in two languages across multiple contexts. But researchers like Fishman argue that it is very unlikely that someone will gain equal competence across multiple contexts in two languages since his use case for the two languages will most certainly be different. For example, we use Urdu in a professional workspace setting, whereas we use Saraiki when we are at home or when negotiating with a local shopkeeper. Balanced bilingualism could also be a problematic concept in other ways, especially if the balanced competency of the two languages is on a far lower level, thus making communication futile in either of the two languages. An ideal example of a balanced bilingual is of a pupil who can understand the delivery of lecture in the two languages he knows and he can produce his learned output in any of the two languages.
Sources and Suggested Readings
Lecture and Slides by Sir Nasir Mehmood
Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism by Colin Baker
Who Is a Bilingual? By Parviz Maftoon & Masoume Shakibafar
