Aristotle's Poetics
1 What is literary criticism?
The process of weighing a certain piece of literature, be it in the form of prose or poetry, under certain theories and practices is called literary criticism.
2 What does Plato say about poetry?
Plato despised poetry on account of being used for spreading "immorality" and "lies about gods". He called poetry the imitation of an imitation, twice removed from reality.
3 The subject of 'Republic' is politics. Comment.
The subject of Plato's Republic is not politics. The book is based on the dialogues of Socrates on how to live life justly and happily, and in explaining justice, he also adds political strain to it. Source
4 What does 'Poetics' deal with?
The subject matter of Aristotle's Poetics is Tragedy, its elements and its function on the onlookers of tragedy.
5 How does Aristotle define poetry?
Aristotle defines poetry as an art of imitating the world through the help of words only.
6 In what three ways does Aristotle differentiate various art forms from one another?
Aristotle differentiates between various forms of arts through their object/subject matter, medium and manner of imitation. For example, epic and tragedy may look similar as these two forms depict the heroic deeds of a valiant person. However, their distinction can be measured by their medium and manner of imitation. The manner of imitation of epic and tragedy is narration and action respectively.
7 What is the difference between epic poetry and tragedy?
According to Aristotle's Poetics, the difference between epic poetry and tragedy lies in how these two approach the seriousness of a given situation. Epic poetry can include a variety of settings and time spans whereas tragedy is limited to few settings. However, the limitation of epic is narration as action in tragedy is more immersive than narration.
8 Why does Aristotle value Homer so highly as a poet in 'Poetics'?
Aristotle admires Homer because of the reduction of his own narration. Instead of the narrator bringing the story forward, the characters in his epic move the story ahead. Source
9 How does Aristotle define 'the universal'?
Aristotle defines "the universal" as a phenomenon mutually acceptable among the people of all ages and time.
10 What are the three meanings of imitation?
According to Aristotle, god constructed the universe in his own image. The universe created by him was the exact imitation of his own idea. Similarly, a poet creates his own image of the world around him and uses words to recreate it. Thus, the recreation of a poem is based on a poet's own imitation of his surroundings and his surroundings are the imitation of god's image of the poet's world.
11 Define the term 'mock epic'.
Narrating a trivial happening in the guise of the grandeur and diction of a classical epic is called mock-epic.
12 What is the main difference between poetry and history?
As suggested by Aristotle, history narrates facts of a certain frame of time whereas poetry converts these facts into universal truths.
13 What are the six parts every tragedy must-have? Which, according to Aristotle, is the most important?
Aristotle asserts that every tragedy has 6 formative elements. These elements are:
- Plot
- Character
- Thought
- Diction
- Spectacle
- Song
Out of the 6 elements listed above, Aristotle deems plot as the most important element as, according to him, plot helps drive action in a tragedy.
14 What, according to Aristotle, is the primary purpose of tragedy?
Aristotle considers arousing the emotions of pity and fear among the audience and catharsis of such emotions as the main function of a tragedy. Thus making them understand the ways of gods and men as they leave the theatre. Source
15 What is the place of catharsis in tragedy?
Catharsis holds an integral place in tragedy as Aristotle calls it the main function of a tragedy.
16 What is 'anti-climax' in drama?
Anti-climax is the unsatisfactory and ludicrous result/outcome of a serious and climax-building situation that ends up in a disappointed or a boring one. Source
17 What is the importance of plot in tragedy?
Aristotle considers plot as the soul of tragedy. Plot helps a tragedy move the action forward. Aristotle deems plot more important than the characters inhabiting it.
18 What is the opinion of Aristotle about three unities in the play?
Aristotle did not introduce the idea of three unities. He only mentioned one unity and that was Unity of Action. By Unity of Action, Aristotle asserts that a tragedy must be centred around a closely-knit sequence of events and actions that takes a hero to his final downfall.
19 What is the place of suffering in tragedy?
The final scene of suffering of the hero despite his sincere efforts to solve the problem, helps a great deal among the audience to feel sympathetic for the downfall of the hero which leads to the catharsis of harmful emotions.
20 Among the three unities, which one is called Aristotelian?
Among the unity of action, time and place, unity of action the only dramatic unity that is suggested by Aristotle.
21 What are the characteristics of an ideal tragic hero?
An ideal tragic hero must be:
- Noble
- Susceptible to tragic flaws
- His downfall must be the result of peripety and anagnorisis Source
22 Why does Aristotle consider a saintly figure inappropriate to be a tragic hero?
Aristotle considers a saintly figure to be an inappropriate tragic hero as his downfall, due to his excessive goodness will not arouse the feelings of pity among the audience as his sacrifice will be seen as a spiritual one. However, T. S. Eliot, in his Murder of Cathedral has proven that even a saint can be a suitable tragic hero.
23 What does Aristotle mean by the singleness in tragedy?
By the singleness in a tragedy, Aristotle means to assert that a tragedy must follow a single organic unity of events, from the beginning, to the middle and till the end.
24 What does the term hamartia mean?
Hamartia means the error of judgment of the tragic hero that leads to his tragic downfall. View Poll
25 What is the Probable Impossibility as discussed by Aristotle?
Probable Impossibility can be a possibility that can be interpreted as impossible by the audience but can be made possible with science. (Correction will be appreciated) Source
26 Why is plot more important than character or speech in a tragedy?
Aristotle deems plot to be preferable to character. As controversial a statement as it may sound, by plot, Aristotle means action. Action is the most important factor in a tragedy. Characters or dramatic personages can exit in theory by their names but it is action or what they do that makes them alive to the audience.
27 What are 'recognition' (anagnorisis) and 'reversal' (peripeteia)?
Peripeteia means the reversal of a particular situation whereas anagnorisis is the discovery of the reversal, that is not in favour of the tragic hero and leads to his tragic downfall.
28 What role does language play in the development of epic and tragedy?
The role of language or diction in epic or tragedy is largely determined by its use in the prestigious genres of story-telling. Language in an epic is tweaked in such a way that is suitable for narration. However, in a tragedy, language is moulded in such a manner that makes a tragedy presentable on stage.
29 What is peripety? What is a discovery? What is the best form of discovery?
Already answered in Q27. The best form of discovery is the one that is proceeded by reversal, without any gaps, for an acute tragic effect.
30 What are the four requirements of a character?
A character in a tragedy must be:
- Essentially good
- True to life
- Consistent
- Appropriate
An Apology for Poetry by Sir Philip Sidney
1 Who was Philip Sidney?
Sir Philip Sidney was an influential literary figure of the Elizabethan Era. Sir Philip Sidney is known for his Astrophel and Stella and his Defense of Poetry against the unjust charges of Stephen Gusson. Source
2 What was the purpose of writing "An Apology for Poetry"?
The purpose behind "An Apology to Poetry" was to retort the false charges of a puritan, named Stephen Gusson, on poetry and contemporary literature that used poetry as a manner of imitation.
3 Define the term Renaissance.
Renaissance is a term which is used as an indication of the period of the revival of knowledge and learning in Europe after the darkness of the Medieval Era
4 What two ideas does "An Apology for Poetry" deal with?
"An Apology to Poetry" not only deals with refuting the charges levelled against poetry but also highlights the importance as well as superiority of poetry.
5 What is the origin and meaning of the word "poet"?
The word "Poet" comes from the Greek word "poiētēs" which means "to make". The Greeks revered poets as "Makers". Source
6 What is the nature and function of poetry according to Sidney?
The nature and function of poetry, according to Sidney, is to imitate the objects of Nature and to make it more serene.
7 How is poetry superior to philosophy and history?
According to Sidney, poetry is superior to philosophy and history as history deals with a particular event whereas poetry converts it into a universal one. Similarly, philosophy suggests what may happen but poetry also adds example to the perception devised under philosophy.
8 How has Sidney established that poetry is antique and universal in nature?
Sidney asserts that poetry is the most antique form of knowledge and expression among Greeks and Romans. Similarly, poetry was universally adopted and nurtured from Red Indians to Englishmen as well. Source
9 What, according to Sidney, is the relationship between pleasure and learning?
According to Sidney, the relationship between pleasure and learning is essential for knowledge. Poetry has the ability to make someone learn sciences and arts with pleasure.
10 How does the poet's art differ from that of the astronomer, geometrician, moral philosopher, rhetorician, and others?
A poet's art differs from others as he draws his inspiration from his everyday experience of his surroundings. Whereas an astronomer or a mathematician might be inefficient in his findings.
11 What, according to Sidney, did Greeks mean by the philosophical term architectonike?
According to Greeks, the term architectonike was used to denote the structural unity of a piece of literature.
12 Is Sidney's idea of mimesis Platonic or Aristotelian?
Sidney's idea of mimesis is Aristotelian. Sidney follows the concept of Aristotle in defining poetry as an imitation of the poet's creative facility but he also adds the element of teaching as a purpose of poetry other than delight.
13 What are the three kinds of poetry according to Sidney?
Sidney asserts that there are three kinds of poetry which are listed below:
- Religious Poetry: The most notable form of poetry that revolves around the "inconceivable excellencies of God"
- Philosophical Poetry:
- Imaginative Poetry: This kind of poetry is composed by the poets who provide learning and delightfulness in their compositions.
14 What is Elegy?
An elegy is a kind of subjective poem, that is sombre or serious in nature and revolves around a person who is dead. For example, the poem, O Captain! My Captain! is an elegy composed by Whitman on the departure of Abraham Lincoln.
15 What is the essence of Sidney's defence against poetry?
Sidney asserts that poetry is not a waste of time as it is the most fruitful form of learning. He further suggests that poetry is not a mother of lies as he thinks a poet is the most truthful being. Answering the charge of poetry spreading immorality, he says that it is a poet's fault to use poetry for immoral purposes. Lastly, he answers that Plato was not against poets but the bad use of poetry.
16 What is Sidney's opinion about the heroic or Epic poetry?
Sidney is of the view that Epic or heroic poetry is the greatest form of poetry that compels readers to learn heroic deeds through the heroes of great merit.
17 Why does Sidney says, "Comedy is not merely to provide laughter".
Sidney suggests that comedy should also provide delight with learning.
18 What are the main objections brought against poetry by its enemies?
Stephen Gosson, in his School of Abuse, levels out these charges against poetry:
- Poetry is a waste of time.
- Poetry is a mother of lies.
- Poetry is a nurse of abuse.
- Plato had rightly banished poets from his Republic.
19 To what extent, ultimately, does Sidney agree with Horace about the aim or "end" of poetry?
Horace famously asserts that the aim of poetry is to teach and provide delightfulness. Sidney also agrees to Horace but he adds morality to the mix.
20 Does "rhyming and versing" make a poet, according to Sidney?
Sidney asserts that rhyme and versification alone cannot make one a poet. It is his ability to fuse images of virtues and vices with the intention of making readers learn that makes him a poet.
21 How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry that it is bound up with "rhyming and versing"?
Sidney refutes poetry being tied to "rhyming and versing" by presenting the Bible of the Old Testament as an example of poetry. Be it Song of Songs by Solomon, Psalms of David or the Book of Job. Sidney also believes that it is a person's ability to imitate the world that makes him a poet.
22 How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry being the waste of time?
Sidney rebuts the first allegation of poetry being a waste of time by asserting that poetry is the noblest and most fruitful form of learning. By learning, he means virtuous deeds and actions.
23 How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry being the mother of lies?
Sidney answers that a poet is the least a liar. Unlike astronauts, physicians or historians, who strive to elaborate what is and what is not, a poet simply tells what should be and what should not be.
24 How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry being the nurse of abuse?
Puritans like Gusson considered poetry as a nurse of abuse as, according to them, it would arouse lustful feelings among the readers. Sidney replies that it is not the fault of poetry for being considered as a medium of immorality, it is the fault of those poets who infact their poetry with immorality.
25 What was Sidney's approach on Plato's banishment of poets from his ideal republic?
It was considered by Puritans that Plato rightfully banished poets from his ideal Republic because of their immoral poetry. Sidney answered that Plato's own republic was based on many immoral ideas (i.e allowing sexual relationships). Sidney further explained that Plato was against the immorality and disrespectfulness of gods in his Republic. Sidney assumed Plato is a patron of poets.
26 Why has England grown so hard a step-mother to poets? Asks Sidney.
Sidney himself answers the question asked above by asserting that England has no good poets as the poets of England try to produce poetry like a product in a factory. They lack the genuine instinct of a poet. Source
27 What should be the qualities of a tragedy according to Sidney?
According to Sidney, a tragedy should:
- Imitate a noble action
- The noble action should stir the admiration and sympathy for the hero among the audience
28 What should be the qualities of a comedy according to Sidney?
Sidney suggests that a comedy should:
- Imitate common errors of life in a ridiculous manner
- Provoke the audience to avoid such errors
- Promote delightful learning Source
29 What argument does Sidney make concerning the unity of place? Does his comment seem fitting? Why or why not?
While mentioning Unity of Place, Sidney maintains that the rapid change of place or setting should be avoided. He thinks that usage of the same stage for a garden, cave or a pitched field can render a play unnatural. According to my feeble judgement, the comment of Sidney on Unity of Place does not seem fitting as the audience of the play can overcome the rapid shift of places on the same stage by unconsciously applying willing suspension of disbelief when watching a play. Source
30 What is the value of Sidney's criticism?
Sidney's criticism holds a strong value among the other critics preceding next to him as he not only presented sound theories but elaborated them with practical criticism. His criticism is also important for defending poetry against the unjust allegations of Stephen Gosson.
Tradition and Individual Talent by TS Eliot
1 Why does Eliot oppose the romantic conceptions in his famous theory of impersonality in Art?
Eliot opposes the romantic conception because he thinks poetry should be an outcome of the impersonal experience of the poet. The subjectivity in romanticism dismays him the most.
2 What is T.S. Eliot's view about Wordsworth's theory of "Spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions"?
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian conception of poetry. He considers poetry as an organization of the feelings collected through objective observation.
- His lack of eyesight
- His use of archaic or dead language
- His style is not classical
Critical Practise by Catherine Belsey
1 Who was Catherine Belsey?
Catherine Belsey was a professor and a literary critic whose work centred around post-structuralism.
2 What subject does Belsey deal in Critical Practice?
In Critical Practice, Catherine Belsey discusses different theories to approach the meaning of a literary text.
3 What is Belsey's view about Classical Realism?
According to Belsey, Classical Realism tends to display individuals as characters whose development are throttled by their choices. She thinks that this kind of realism was a tool to propagate certain agendas in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
4 What does Belsey mean by Expressive Realism?
Belsey defines Expressive Realism as thus,
"The theory that literature reflects the reality of experience, as it is perceived by one individual, who expresses it in a discourse which enables other individuals to recognise it as true. "
Belsey, by Expressive Realism, means to suggest that reality lies in text as perceived by a reader. Who, then, passes his experience of reality to others. "
5 How much the common-sense view of literature is justified? Discuss with reference to Belsey's arguments.
The common-sense view of literature is partly justified and partly refuted by Belsey. Belsey, at first, accepts it as a natural response of a reader to a literary text. But, later, she rejects it as the learning or response of the common sense of a reader can prove insignificant once the author chooses a different set of words to express the same idea.
6 What relationship does Belsey establish between criticism and common sense?
Belsey draws relationship between Criticism and Common Sense through the journey from natural acquisition of meaning to something that is obvious within the text.
7 What, according to Belsey, is the difference between common sense and literary theory?
According to Belsey, the difference between common sense and literary theory
How does Belsey discuss the authority of common sense with respect to Saussure's view of linguistic theory?
8 What is Belsey's opinion about Saussure's theory?
Belsey's opinion regarding Saussure's theory which argued that the lingual analysis of a word should be performed according to a specific period of time, is mostly positive. She asserts that Saussure's linguistic approach has eradicated the obscurities between the relationship of a language with the ideology of a certain word.
9 Explain the Post-Saussurean notion that the transparency of language is an illusion.
According to this notion, the transparency of the signifier can lead to the illusionary version of the signified. For instance, in French, the word (signifier) "mouton" is used to refer to the two different signifieds, muton and sheep simultaneously. Thus the dual meaning of the aforementioned signifier is illusionary as it may hint incorrectly hint at the meat when the author intended for sheep.
10 What is post-structuralism?
Post-structuralism is a term that is used to refer to the rejection of ideas and theories offered and proposed by the structuralists. Source
11 What are the three kinds of the texts mention by Belsey?
- Declarative Text: Which declares a certain ideology in it
- Imperative Text: Which compels a reader to think against a certain ideology
- Interrogative Text: The text which makes a reader question the way a text is constricted and the ideology which comes with it.
12 What do you understand by Dialectical Text?
Dialectical Text showcases the address of a speaker to a specific set of people in the form of text. The speaker attempts to bring home his philosophical and logical stance by asking and answering. Source
13 Differentiate between Dialectical and the Rhetorical Text.
Dialectical text may only appeal a specific number of people, Rhetorical Text is intended to be read by a large number of people. Source
14 Critical Practice is produced with a bias in favour of the Interrogative Text. Do you agree?
Critical Practice is written in such a way that it seems as if it is biased against favouring Interrogative Text, especially her rejecting Expressive Realism and her keen interest in deconstruction.
15 Discuss the concept of split and unfixed subject with reference to the Interrogative Text.
Will be answered later.
16 What, according to Lacan, are the three stages of child development?
Lucan suggests three stages of child development:
- The Real: The fulfilment of a child's need through his movements of urge.
- The Imaginative Order: In this stage, a child's need may turn into (fantastic) demands as he learns to differentiate between himself and others as he looks into the mirror and tries to control his (Imaginative) image
- The Symbolic Order: A child's acceptance of the rules of the language of his society and his ability to communicate regarding his desires to the people around him. Source
17 In what ways did New Critics change the approach of criticism towards a literary text?
Before New Criticism, the meaning of the text was approached through its social and moral context. New Critics emphasized that the meaning of the text lied in the structure of the text itself. They put text at the forefront of criticism.
18 How can meaning be constructed by reproducing what is familiar?
Deriving a meaning out of a familiar word through its reproduction can be done by looking into its usage by the people at a time.
19 Discuss Belsey's arguments in the favour of structural criticism.
Belsey favours Structural Criticism by arguing that the meaning of a text lies in the structure of the ideology of a society. For her, what matters is not text but how and why the meaning is extracted out of the text.
20 What are the three features that describe a Classic Realist text?
- It suppresses contradictions
- [Falsely] Compels a reader to assume the position that whatever he read is obvious
- It is mystical (and enigmatic) by its constructive nature.
21 Define the terms ideology and discourse and explain their relationship to each other.
In literature, discourse is a term that is used to highlight the process of the presentation of one's thought through language. Ideology, however, is the structure of beliefs and customs which binds certain people together. Discourse helps in providing ideology, a concrete shape of words while ideology serves a key role in shaping one's discourse. Read more
22 How does ideology shape the subject?
Ideology shapes the subject by infusing itself into the text, without a reader realizing it.
23 Can the subject find its way out of ideology?
Ideology holds a firm grip in language and a subject is also expressed in that language, the subject cannot find its way out of a certain ideology.
24 "There is no criticism without ideology". How does Belsey argue this thesis?
Belsey asserts that ideological beliefs are personal and personal interpretation of a text can be illusionary. In short, she rejects this notion.
25 What is the influence of Marx and Althusser on literary criticism?
Althusser believed that ideological propagation in a text was only devised to achieve the goal of controlling the narrative of the people. He introduced the ideological effects of a text in literary criticism. Source
26 What is Deconstruction method? How has it changed the concept of modern criticism?
Deconstruction is a close (structural) study of the text. Deconstruction, in criticism, shifted the authority of the author to the authority of the reader in interpreting his text.
27 Explain the deconstruction of the text with reference to Barthes and Macherey.
Barthes, in reference to deconstruction, claimed in his "Death of the Author" that the author knew about the book he wrote no more than the reader.
28 Where does the meaning lie: in the text, the reader, the writer, or the structure?
Belsey asserts that the meaning of a text lise in the structure of social formation.
29 Discuss the methods of extracting meanings out of a creative text as described by Belsey.
Belsey proposes the following methods:
- Analytical Criticism: In which a reader evaluates the different images presented in the text.
- Evaluating Criticism: In which the facts contained in the text are evaluated.
30 What are the problems involved in the production of text?
The chief problem involved in the production of text is the allocation of an author's intended meaning inside it. As meaning may differ from a reader who is casually reading his text to a critic who is evaluating his text on the basis of factual raw materials in his text.
31 What are the major drawbacks preventing the attainment of a new and productive critical practice?
The evaluation of the text will not be up to the mark of the current necessities of the time.
