Introductory
Bilingualism, on the face of it, does seem like an easy term: a person or a group of people knowing two languages. But knowing two languages is not a consistent phenomenon, as it differs from person to person or community to community. For example, people within our local Mianwalian community know both Saraiki and Urdu (some even know Pashto), but to a different degree. This poses the question of whether the farmers of Pakki Shah Mardan, who only speak Saraiki but are able to listen to and understand Urdu, are bilingual, or whether the educated class, who are able to speak both Urdu and Saraiki, are bilingual. Let's go through some of the definitions of bilingualism by renowned linguists.
Definitions of Bilingualism by Known Linguists
According to Bloomfield, bilingualism is having 'native-like control of two languages'. Bloomfield's view of bilingualism was held for a long time, but it did not take into account different levels of bilingualism based on language ability, which we will discuss later. Haugen termed bilingualism "the point where a speaker can first produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language" but again, what about those who can comprehend what others are saying in a different language? Macnamara addresses this concern in his definition of bilingualism and he considers a person bilingual if he has even a single language skill among the four (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) in a language other than his native tongue. So the farmers of Pakki Shah Mardan are actually bilingual, BUT only according to the definition of Macnamara.
Maximalists and Minimalists
It's obvious from these definitions that different linguists agree on different levels of bilingualism. Those, on the extreme end of considering "native-like control of two languages" are called the maximalists, whereas the linguists on the other end of the spectrum who even consider someone biulingual who is able to understand spoken words in a different language are known as the minimalists.
Types of Bilingualism
- Individual Bilingualism: A (single) person's ability to make use of two languages.
- Social Bilingualism: A community's ability to utilize two languages.
Factors That Affect Bilingualism
Migration: You most certainly will need to learn a new language when you move to a new region (other than your own country). Acquiring that particular language (whether it is English or any other language) can put the linguistic performance of your previously known languages in jeopardy in case if you don't use that language frequently. This factor affects bilingualism on an individual level.
Social Class: Different social classes within the same region/area may have different preferences for different languages. For example, us, the working class usually goes with Urdu and our respective mother tongues, but the elite class opts for English and Urdu.
Geography: Geography greatly impacts bilingualism. The people in the US are monolingual (some do know Spanish), but the majority of individuals within the EU are bilingual. For example, many people in Germany know both English and German.
Bilingualism Works Differently for Different Persons
Geoscientists: Bilingualism, for those whose bread and butter is geography, they represent it differently. Since geography is mainly about maps, geoscientists may use dots on a map to represent bilingual group(s).
Educationists: Individuals connected with the education department may take a look at how their policy is affecting bilingualism.
Psychologists: Psychology oriented individuals will observe cognitive development when someone learns another language.
Sources and Suggested Readings
Lecture and Discussion with Sir Nasir Mehmood
Chapter 1 - Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism by Colin Baker
Who Is a Bilingual? By Parviz Maftoon & Masoume Shakibafar
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/international-english/bilingualism/
