Introductory
Greek Tragedy, though an old genre it is, but it is still a genre of great significance, important and inspirational for modern plays in general and modern tragedies In particular. But what is a Greek Tragedy and how did it originate and what set it apart from the rest of tragedies like Shakespearean or Marlowian ones? Let's begin:
The word "Tragedy" is derived from a Greek word tragōidia which means "a goat's song". But it is a play that is serious in nature so what is its relation to goats? During the festival of Dionysus, 4 plays were presented in which three of these plays were serious tragedies but one of them was a comic play dedicated for tragic relief. The writer of the best play was awarded with a goat.
The difference between modern tragedy and a typical Greek tragedy lies in its ending. A modern tragedy ends on a serious note while it was not essential for a Greek Tragedy to end in a serious note. It would house some tragic scenes in either its beginning or middle but it would end happily. In order to understand a Greek tragedy, we have to resort to Aristotle. Although he presented 4 plots, one of them transcended from misery to happiness but Aristotle favoured the modern-day plot for a tragedy that would start happily and would end in tragic misery.
Aristotle's Concept of Greek Tragedy
Aristotle defines the concept of an ideal (Greek) tragedy as follows,
Tragedy, then, is a representation of an action that is worth serious attention, complete in itself, and of some magnitude in language enriched by a variety of artistic devices appropriate to the several parts of the play; presented in the form of action, not narration; by means of pity and fear bringing about the purgation [catharsis] of such emotions.
This is, by far, one of the most comprehensive definitions of tragedy. It can be divided into the two parts for a better comprehension of the classic genre. The first half deals with the imitative enterprise while the second half makes clear the functions of a tragedy.
Imitative Enterprise of the Classical Tragedy
Before discussing at length about the imitative qualities of an ancient tragedy, first, we have to make ourselves acquainted with the term imitation itself. The literal meaning of Imitation is to copy or to mimic a person or a thing into a different thing. For example, the sea is an actual earthly body, painting it to a canvas can be called a visual imitation of the sea.
Plato used the term imitative arts in his book, discussing about an ideal state, to define "useless" arts in contrast to the "useful" arts he divided. He condemned the "useless" arts especially poetry by calling it an "imitation of an imitation, twice removed from reality. " Plato deemed the whole world an imitation of god's idea of creating a world. He suggested that he would banish poets from his ideal republic for spreading 'lies'.
However Aristotle came in defence of poetry as an imitation of the "poet's idea" that he derives from the actual world itself. Aristotle further divided the concept of imitation into three sub-categories,
- Object or Subject Matter of Imitation
- Medium of Imitation
- Manner of Imitation
Let's discuss this in connection with Aristotle's definition of tragedy since Aristotle deems it one among the imitative [not useless] arts.
Object of Tragedy
Object or subject-matter of an imitation means the source or the topic of an imitation. Tragedy, in this regard, differs itself from its sister genre comedy. As the name suggests, the subject matter of a typical Greek Tragedy is serious. While comedy follows a light or satiristic object in it. It is the subject matter that determines the function of an imitation. That is why, the function of tragedy of bringing about the catharsis of the emotions of fear and pity, as compared to the comedy which is only purposed for spreading waves of laughter and smiles.
Manner of Tragedy
Manner of an imitation means how it is presented before its audience. Classical tragedy differs from an epic in this field. The two prestigious genres may present a serious story but in a different manner. An epic presents an incident through narration. But a tragedy presents a story with action on the stage. When a story is presented through actors performing on stage, it makes the story more immersive and understandable.
Medium of Tragedy
Medium of Imitation means what medium is used to illustrate it. We may set a distinction of tragedy with a lyric. Although both of the genres use verse to convey their idea to the public. Tragedy uses dialogues to unfold the hidden action to its audience.
Proper Plot
One of the core requirements of a tragedy that it should be complete. Which means that it should not leave any patch of the story behind. It must have a proper plot with an appropriate beginning, middle and the end. Beginning means the action that is not followed by a prior action and establishes a base for the story. Usually, characters and problems are introduced in this phase. The middle follows the beginning and then gives rise to the ending. It is a point in which a solution to the problem is exposed and the hero or characters try to alleviate the problem. While the ending follows the middle but it is NOT followed by anything. This is a crucial part of a story as it can either make or break a story. Almost all the Greek Tragedies unintentionally followed the simple concept of plot structure to bring home the message of a story (mostly the role of gods) to the people.
Magnitude
Some critics argue that magnitude, in Aristotle's definition of tragedy, means a grand story or subject matter. But Aristotle meant it for the length. He suggests that tragedy should not be too long that people find it difficult to recall and not too short that people cannot even understand the story. Its length should be maintained appropriately so that it may be performed within a day and actors may remember dialogues easier.
Law of Probability and Necessity
This law means that the actions of a character must be up to the mark of people's expectations. His actions must be justifiable and should align properly with the story. Similarly, his actions must be necessary in accordance with the story. For instance, Oedipus was expected to send a person to Delphi to bring an Oracle that may help his people get out of the plague. But he had already sent one. Oedipus' action was necessary and appropriate to the demanding situation and problem. So, he emerged as a responsible figure in Thebes.
Functions of Classical Greek Tragedy
Aristotle makes it obscurely easy for us to trace the functions of the Greek tragedy since he has mentioned it in his definition. Its main function is to bring about the catharsis of the emotions of pity and fear. But his interpretation of functions of tragedy is lost that he supposedly may have discussed it in the second half of his Poetics. Therefore, different interpretations of catharsis have been exposed by different critics.
Purgation Theory
Purgation Theory deals with the medical side of Catharsis. In ancient times, Greeks believed that a human body was made of four humours (liquids), which were blood, black bile, yellow bile and plagum. A proper balance was essential to maintain a healthy life but excess of one of the humours could put the life of a human being at stake. Therefore, partial removal of excess was known as "Purgation".
Like Curing the Like
Behind this rhetoric was the concept of homoeopathic treatment. It was explained that "a little solution of something can cure the excess of the same thing. " But this homoeopathic interpretation does not make any direct sense in the realm of tragedy. This segment of the theory says that the scenes of fear may cure the fear in the audience the same way as a crying child is silenced by the sound of something or music, calming a mental melancholy.
Unlike Curing the Unlike
This neo-classic and allopathic segment says that an excess of something can be cured by its opposite counterpart. Critics of the eighteenth century believed that one of the major problems of their society was pride and anger. That pride and anger could be cured by their opposite emotions of pity and fear respectively.
Purification Theory
Purification theory also deals with the alleviation bad emotions but differently as compared to the above-mentioned theory of purgation. Purification deals with the quality of emotions that are to be purified from the excess of those emotions and those emotions to return or reduced to an intermediate state.
Clarification Theory
Clarification Theory overlooks the above-mentioned theories of catharsis that put the audience of a tragedy at the centre. Rather it puts the pleasure within a tragedy on top of the hill. But that pleasure is to be attained by learning. That learning comes through the probable actions in the play. Therefore, the centre of catharsis is the spectator who learns from the probable actions of a hero.
Six Formative Elements of Greek Tragedy as Discussed by Aristotle
Aristotle says that an ideal tragedy is made of six essential elements that are plot, character, thought, diction, spectacle and song. The first three are internal elements while the latter three are external. Plots, characters and thoughts are the subject matter of a tragedy. Diction and song are medium of tragedy while spectacle is the manner of tragedy.
Plot
Plot means an arrangement of events or incidents that happen in a story. These arrangements are set by the author himself. According to Aristotle, plot is the most important element of a tragedy. He even goes to extent that a tragedy can be without a character but not without a plot. This statement of Aristotle has upset many critics as it is rather impossible to create a story without a character.
But here, Aristotle meant something else. Characters are of two types. The first one that exhibits actions while the second one demonstrates the mental or psychological approach to it. Aristotle wants to say that a tragedy can be created without the mental side of characters since it directly relates to the action (of heroes).
Aristotle has divided plots into three kinds:
- Simple Plot: Simple Plot is a plot that does not exhibit sudden changes. Also, the story contains only one plot.
- Complex Plot: Complex plot may have different sub-plots linking to the main plot in the end. This plot showcases sudden changes propelled by Peripeteia and Anagnorisis.
- Plot of Suffering: Aristotle suggests that it is the most inferior kind of plot. This type of plot depicts a story full of sufferings and killings. Aristotle says that scenes of sufferings should follow the law of probability. It is also known as the plot of revenge. Seneca, a Roman tragedian, has written most of his tragedies in this plot. In fact, Shakespeare's flagship tragedy, Hamlet is based upon the very plot.
- Peripeteia: This term means a sudden reversal of situation. For example, when Oedipus is too eager in capturing the murderer of King Laius, things start to turn upon him. -Remember Teiresias' Prophesy? ]
- Anagnorisis: It is the revelation of peripeteia. For example, When Oedipus learns from the Corinthian Shepherd that he is the one who is the son of Laius who not only killed his father but married his own mother, he gauges out his own eyes.
Criticism
Modern critics do not seem to agree with Aristotle's point of view of the plot. They are more inclined towards breaking the unity of events or presenting them in different order.
Just a Quick Sidenote: There is a fundamental difference between Plot and Story. A story is the chronological sequence of events while a plot is a specific arrangement of events according to the liking of a writer.
Character
A character is the one who moves the story of a tragedy forward through his or her actions. Characters are divided into two kinds:
Dramatic Persona: Name and identity of a character. For example, the name Oedipus directly hints at a Theban king who received the prophecy of committing patricide and incest.
Moral Bent of Mind: The psychological intinctions of a person which highlight his or her inner personality.
Aristotle has described four qualities of a dominant character (hero) in ancient Greek Tragedy. And those qualities are, goodness, appropriation, true to life and consistency.
Thought
Though in a tragedy is the intellectual questioning of the themes of a writer. A writer can either approve his themes or disapprove it through the medium of thoughts. But those thoughts cannot be expressed without diction.
Diction
Diction is the language in which a tragedy is unfolded and the thoughts of a writer are expressed through it. Aristotle says that a tragedy should have a lofty diction that should be enriched by the apt use of figurative elements that should beautify the language instead of obscuring it.
Spectacle
Spectacle has its association with the stage and it is the background that is used before a stage to present a scene of, for example, a forest. But, in Greek Tragedies, it was not limited to the backgrounds but to the stage effects that were produced through the costumes and masks actors wore.
Song
Song is one of the embellishments that was used to intensify the scenes of a tragedy. The songs or odes were usually performed by the Chorus who not only explained the situation to the audience but also commented on it.
Quantitative Elements of a Tragedy
These elements of tragedy are directly connected with the content or writing of a tragedy itself. These elements are Prologue, Episodes, Exode and a choral portion that is further divided into Parode and Stasimon.
Parode or Parodos
The first initial part of a tragedy begins on a choral performance that is called Parode or Parodos.
Prologue
This portion of a tragedy is directly followed by Parodos. This portion makes people aware of the problems of a tragedy.
Episode
Episodes are a series of an action that is either divided on the basis of setting or incidents that are directly interlinked.
Exode or Exodos
This portion of tragedy is presented at the end of it, featuring its moral lesson or its final outcome.
Stasimon
It is a choral song with a specific poetic meter.
Characterization in Tragedy
As discussed earlier a character in a tragedy must be good, appropriate, his caricaturing must be true to life and his actions must be consistent or inconsistent throughout the play.
- Goodness: The concept of goodness in the present day is different as compared to the concept that was traditionally accepted in the Ancient Greece. Today, we associate goodness with everything that is morally good but the ancient Grecians believed that goodness is hidden in the show of valour, bravery and courage in the battlefield. That influence of goodness is clearly visible in the Greek Tragedies of their time.
- Appropriate: Greek Tragedies, in general, demanded appropriate characters that were given appropriate roles. For example, a woman of that time was not expected to be brave or a slave was not identified as a good person, so portaging them brave and good respectively would create inappropriate characters in a tragedy.
- True to Life: A character in a tragedy is a true representation of the actual person of that time. If a tragedy is showcasing a historical figure, then the main historical character must be accurate to the actual historical personality.
- Consistent: The actions of a consistent character should remain consistent throughout the play while the inconsistent character should remain inconsistent.
Ideal Tragic Hero
Aristotle has defined two major qualities of an ideal tragic hero in a Greek Tragedy. He suggests that a hero must be essentially good and his tragic downfall must be propelled by his good nature. And his downfall should affect a large number of people under him.
- Essentially Good: An ideal tragic hero is expected to be good. But Aristotle says that his character must be a mixture of both his good and bad qualities.
- Hamartia: The tragic downfall of an ideal tragic hero is accelerated through his hamartia. But it is to be noted that hamartia must be executed through his goodness instead of his wicked intinctions or else the tragedy will not be able to produce the effect that is expected from it.
Competitive Importance of Plot and Character
Aristotle said that there can be a tragedy without a character but not without a plot. As stated earlier, it dismayed many critics of past and present.
Aristotle has divided characters into two types. One is a dramatic persona that only indicates at the identity of a character but it is a character's inner moral belt of mind that really exhibits the true form of a character. In fact, it is the moral belt of mind that shows how a character will behave if he is put on the test by a problem and how will he come out of it. It is the plot that provides him ample opportunities for his inner decisions to shape into outward actions.
Dramatic Unities
Dramatic Unities in tragedy was hinted by Aristotle but the Neo Classics made it mandatory for the plays without realizing the core motive behind these unities. They believed that those unities were essential for creating dramatic illusions. There are three dramatic unities. Unity of plot, unity of time and unity of place. Aristotle only emphasized on the unity of plot.
Unity of Plot
As mentioned above, Aristotle gives great importance to the unity of plot. He suggests that in the ideal Greek Tragedy, plot should be one and simple, that should have proper beginning, middle and end and the events of the story must be interlinked together. But Aristotle does not favour sub plots within a plot. He accepted single plot with a single action. For instance, if a play begins as a tragedy, it should end on a tragic note while a comedy should follow the same rule. He believed that those two genres could not be mixed together in the form of tragic comedy. But modern critics argued Aristotle's point that a Man's life is a mixture of both happiness and misery. Portraying only one side of the coin may not hold up to the idea of realism. In fact, the Elizabethan dramatists did not follow Aristotle's concept of stern dramatic unity of plot and (tragic) action. They added some minor comic elements to their flagship tragedies to increase the entertainment value of their plays. For example, in Othello, we see a brief mention of clowns and musicians while Iago's destructive but amusing tongue helps retain the entertaining value of the tragedy. While in Oedipus Rex, we cannot trace any comic elements because the action begins in a tragic tone and ends on an extreme tragic note. Some critics even argued Aristotle's idea to the fact that in the festival of Dionysus, three plays were serious while one play was comic in nature so how could Aristotle defy the role of comic elements in tragedy?
Unity of Time
Unity of time is something that Aristotle did not present as a rigid rule of writing tragedies. It was something that he observed. He states that the actions of a tragedy are attempted to be presented within "one revolution of the sun". The phrase "one revolution of the sun" annoyed the French critics of the seventeenth-century and English critics of the eighteenth century. English critics argued that the actions in a tragedy must be presented within the actual setting of time in tragedy on stage. For example, if a tragedy consists of an action that spans over 6 months, Neo Classics suggested that the tragedy must be presented for the 6 months on the stage! The idea in itself is strange and impractical as people will lose interest in the play if it is prolonged for an unreasonable amount of time. While the French critics went to the extent to find the actual time through the above-mentioned phrase. Some said that Aristotle suggested a year while others speculated only a day or a month.
Unity of Place
Aristotle did not present the rule of unity of place. It was attributed to him by the misinterpretation of Neo Classics of his comparison of Epic and Tragedy. Epic, he said, had a variety of places to narrate. While a tragedy had to be presented in a smaller setting because it was small in magnitude as compared to Epic. Also the limitation of stage attributed to the lack of places. Because even today, it is difficult to transition from the scene of a forest to the scene of an ocean in theatres and we are talking about an era that was two thousand and five hundred years before us. So the limitation of spaces had to be chosen by the writers so that their plays would not be bottlenecked by the limitation of the stage.
Limitations of Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy
Aristotle, no doubt, gave a comprehensive definition of tragedy but as time changes, the requirements of tragedy has been changed significantly. Let's discover some of the limitations that are traced in Aristotle's concept of tragedy.
Lack of Religious Elements
Aristotle does not allude to the importance of religion in tragedies despite its presence in plays as these plays were intended for the purpose of celebrating the god of fertility, Dionysus. For instance, we see some clear references to gods (Apollo) and the role of oracles in characters' lives as a strong religious influence but Aristotle did not mention about the role of religious elements in the tragedies he was scrutinizing.
Lack of Conflicts
Another core point that is missing from his comprehensive definition is the role of internal and external conflicts in driving a person's tragedy. He merely focuses on the outer actions but the inner turmoil that takes place is equally as important as the outward conflicts. In fact, it is the "inner weather" that creates a sense of superiority of humans among other living beings. And internal conflict also adds its significant share to the arousal of catharsis. Modern writers tend to depict both internal and external conflicts.
His Unsatisfying Explanation of 'Action'
Aristotle defined action as something that is serious and of some magnitude in his famous definition of tragedy. But he was unable to explain the true magnitude of a tragedy as he only limitized it to its size in pages. He could have added more to it to explain it a bit further like the loftiness of an action or the nature of an action whether it can be external or internal.
His Idealization of Oedipus Rex
Aristotle presented Oedipus Rex as an ideal tragedy that checked all the required boxes to create the most noticeable tragic effect in the mind of a reader. Oedipus Rex was a success of its time due to the quality of intense concentration. Intense concentration is something that is achieved through starting a story from its catastrophic point of the plot. For instance, Oedipus Rex opens when Oedipus has unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. But the story of the play begins when Oedipus' parents receive an oracle that their son will kill his father and will marry his mother. If Shakespeare had written this play, he would have started it with Laius and Jocasta, receiving the prophecy. Intense concentration was used to create a tragic effect that was stronger than the Elizabethan tradition. But it did not provide a strong foundation of character development. Also, it imposed a limitation of its own upon writers to present a story in its limited glory. But some modern writers are also taking a fancy to intense concentration in the form of the stream of consciousness technique.
Lack of Subjectivity in Greek Tragedy
One point that modern critics raise is the classical Greek Tragedy lacks subjectivity as these tragedies are mainly objective. Which means it only displays the outer conflict of a hero. But his inner psyche and intinctions are of a significant value that is to be shown to the audience. Shakespeare, although he is an Elizabethan playwright, but, he masterfully strikes a balance between subjectivity and objectivity in his plays.
Qualities of a Tragic Hero
This is the point of which Aristotle is critiqued the most. Firstly, he says that a tragic hero must belong to a higher class. But modern writers are more democratic in their approach. They believe that the tragic downfall of a miner is as significant as that of a dictator.
Another point critics argue is Aristotle's concept of essential goodness. He suggests that a hero can be neither too good, nor too bad but a simple blend of the both. The critics say that tragic heroes can be extremely good or extremely bad. We can see the example of Macbeth or the Jew of Malta by Marlowe as the heroes exhibiting extreme bad characters. While TS Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral and Shaw's St. Johns portray extremely good characters or (tragic) heroes.
Rigid Plot
Aristotle favours plots that have a definite beginning, middle and end. But modern writers, lulled in the stream of consciousness technique, do not use the unity of plot in their novels. In fact, for them, the concept of a rigid plot is dead.
Conclusion
Despite some serious limitations and shortcomings of the Greek Tragedies and Aristotle's Concept of it as discussed by the critics of every time, it is worth noting that, in fact, it was the Grecian Tragedy that pioneered tragic stage performances with their own set of embellishments while influencing the big names like Shakespeare and Marlowe to further clear the grounds for modern writers. Tragedy, now, is not limited to the plays only but it is magnificently present in novels in its own form and colour. But all those colours are indebted to the Classical Greek Tragedy for its stouter foundation.
This essay was written by assembling the pieces of lecture given by Sir Fazal Ur Rehman on the Greek Tragedy and its Aristotelian Concept. So, a big shout out to him for making this possible.
